This book explores the fundamental concepts of derivatives and integrals in calculus, extending their classical definitions to more advanced forms such as fractional derivatives and integrals. The derivative, which measures a function's rate of change, is paired with its counterpart, the integral, used for calculating areas and volumes. Together, they form the backbone of differential and integral equations, widely applied in science, technology, and engineering. However, discrepancies between mathematical models and experimental data led to the development of extended integral forms, such as the Riemann-Stieltjes integral and fractional integrals, which integrate functions with respect to another function or involve convolutions with kernels. These extensions also gave rise to new types of derivatives, leading to fractional derivatives and integrals with respect to another function. While there has been limited theoretical exploration in recent years, this book aims to bridge that gap. It provides a comprehensive theoretical framework covering inequalities, nonlinear ordinary differential equations, numerical approximations, and their applications. Additionally, the book delves into the existence and uniqueness of solutions for nonlinear ordinary differential equations involving these advanced derivatives, as well as the development of numerical techniques for solving them.